Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection and Radiation

 Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection and Radiation

Thermal Energy Transfer

- Thermal energy can be transferred in three main ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.

 

Heat Conduction

- Conduction is the movement of heat within a solid object.

- Conduction occurs when objects are touching, such as a kettle on a stove.

- Heat from the flame moves through the metal of the kettle to the water inside.

- Butter melting on a frying pan is another example of heat conduction.

 

Heat Conduction

- Heat conduction occurs through direct contact when heat moves from a warmer object to a cooler object.

- When you lick an ice cream, it feels cold because heat conducts from your tongue to the ice cream.

- Heat conduction is the movement of heat in liquids and gases.

 

Convection

- Convection is the movement of heat in liquids and gases.

- In a hot air balloon, the air is heated by the burner and rises inside the balloon.

- As the hot air rises, the cooler air falls, creating a current within the balloon.

- The convection current causes thermal energy in the air to spread. Cooling a Room with an Air Conditioner

- On a hot day, an air conditioner can be used to cool down a room

- The cold air that blows out from the air conditioner circulates the room and creates convection currents

Radiation

- Radiation is the process of heat moving from a warmer object to a cooler object without affecting the medium in between.

- Radiation uses electromagnetic waves to emit heat waves that can be reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through a colder object.

- This process doesn't require a medium, unlike conduction and convection.

- For example:- The sun's rays can warm the Earth even after passing through the mesosphere.

Heat Transfer through Conduction and Convection

- Heat moves from the warmer air to the colder air, which makes the air in the room cooler

- For the thermal energy to move by conduction and convection, it must travel through matter

 

Heat Transfer between the Sun and the Earth

- The heat transfer between the sun and the earth occurs through conduction and convection heat        Transfer and the Sun's Warmth

- The sun warms the Earth and other planets through radiation.

- Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves.

 

Radiation vs. Convection

- Radiation is the direct transfer of heat, as seen when a fireplace warms a person.

- Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of a medium, such as the air being warmed in a room by a fireplace.

- Both radiation and convection play a role in how the sun's heat reaches and warms the Earth.

 

Radiant Heat

- Radiant heat is the warmth felt when placing your hands near an electric heater or other heat source.

- Radiant heat is the direct transfer of thermal energy through electromagnetic waves, without needing a physical medium.

- This is the primary mechanism by which the sun's heat reaches and warms the Earth and other planets in the solar system. Heat Transfer

- Heat can be transferred in three main ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.

- Conduction is the transfer of heat through direct contact between objects or materials, such as heat moving through the metal of a kettle to the water inside.

- Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of a fluid, such as the circulation of hot water within a kettle.

- Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as the heat from a heater or campfire.

 

Heat Transfer in a Kettle

- When water in a kettle is heated, thermal energy moves through the metal of the kettle by conduction.

- The thermal energy then moves around the water through convection, as the water circulates and mixes.

- Finally, the heat leaves the kettle and is transferred to the surrounding environment through radiation.

 

Conclusion

- Heat can be transferred through various mechanisms, including conduction, convection, and radiation.

- These processes can be observed in everyday examples, such as water heating in a kettle.

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Limitations of the first law

Limitations of the first law

The 1st law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It doesn't specify the direction of the method(process). All spontaneous processes are processed only in one direction. The first law of thermodynamics doesn't deny the feasibility(workability) of a process reversing itself.

Limitations of the primary law:

1^st limitation- 1st law doesn't facilitate(help) to predict whether a certain process is possible or not.

Reasons- It doesn't specify that heat can't flow from a low-temperature body to a high-temperature body.

2^nd limitation- The 1st law doesn't provide info concerning(about) the direction.

.

Reasons-  as an example, it puts no restriction on the direction of the flow of warmth(heat), whether warmth(heat) can flow from a cold body to a hot body or vice versa.

3^rd limitation- This law is silent concerning its percentage(%) of conversion of energy from one form to another form. Work can be converted into the equivalent amount of heat but heat can't be converted into the equivalent amount of work.

In other words:-

The limitations of the first law -

• It doesn't tell us the direction in which heat flows when they are in contact.
• It doesn't tell about the final temperature of two bodies when they are in direct contact.
• It doesn't tell about the entropy of the system.

First Law of Thermodynamics

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Refrigerator

Refrigerator

A refrigerator is a cyclically operating device which absorbs energy as heat from a low-temperature body and rejects energy as heat to a high-temperature body when work is performed on the device. The objective of this device is to refrigerate a body at a low temperature. Usually, it uses the atmosphere as the high-temperature reservoir.

Figure 1

Refer to figure 1. Let and represents the amount of energy absorbed as heat from the low-temperature reservoir and the energy rejected as heat to the high-temperature reservoir respectively, Let W be the work done on the device to accomplish the task.

(1)

Therefore,

                 

and

(2)

              

(3)

Heat engine and the refrigerator (/heat pump) can be represented as shown in Figure 1.

The efficiency of a heat engine is given by

(4)

since  (heat) transferred to the system cannot be completely converted to work in a cycle. Therefore is less than unity. A heat engine can never be 100 efficient. Therefore., there has always to be a heat rejection. Thus a heat engine has to exchange heat with two reservoirs, the source and the sink. This experience leads to the proposition of the second law of thermodynamics which has been stated in several different ways.

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Intensive and Extensive properties with examples

PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

A property of a system is a characteristic of the system which depends upon its state, but

not upon how the state is reached. There are two sorts of property :

1. Intensive properties. These properties do not depend on the mass of the system.

Examples: Temperature and pressure.

OR

An extensive system property depends upon the total amount of material in the system. Mass, volume, internal energy, heat contents, free energy, entropy, and heat capacity are all extensive properties.

• Mass: This gives the idea of how much of the initial matter was contained in the system and how much is left after the process is complete.
• Volume: This gives an idea of the matter's dimension and what will be the final dimension after the process is over.
• Internal energy: It is the total energy contained in to create the thermodynamic system but excludes the energy to displace the system’s surroundings. It has two major components of kinetic energy and potential energy due to the movement of particles and the static electric power of the atoms contained in them.
• Heat contents: Under a given pressure, the heat content or Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes internal energy which is required to create a system and establish its volume and pressure.
• Free energy: It is the energy in the physical system which can be converted into work.
• Entropy: It is a thermodynamic property that is used to determine the energy available for useful work in a thermodynamic process.
• Heat capacity: Heat capacity or thermal capacity is the measurable physical quantity that gives an idea of the amount of heat required to change a substance’s temperature by a given range.

2. Extensive properties. These properties depend on the mass of the system. Example :

Volume. Extensive properties are often divided by the mass associated with them to obtain the intensive

properties. For example, if the volume of a system of mass m is V, then the specific volume of

matter within the system is V

m = v which is an intensive property.

OR

An intensive property is defined as a property that is independent of the amount of material in the system. Density, molar property, surface tension, viscosity, specific heat, thermal conductivity, refractive index, pressure, temperature, boiling point, freezing point, and vapor pressure of a liquid are all intensive properties.

• Density: The density of a material is defined as the ratio between its volume and the matter contained in or mass.
• Molar property: Molar property mainly consists of the detailing of molar volume, molar energy, molar entropy, and molar heat capacity, and all these are quantified from the point of moles of the substance involved.
• Surface tension: It is a property of a liquid surface that helps in resisting any kind of external force applied to it.
• Viscosity: It is a measurable internal quantity of a fluid that resists its flow.
• Specific heat: It is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius.
• Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity (λ) is the intrinsic property of a material that relates to its ability to conduct heat.
• Refractive index: The measure of the speed of light in a medium is referred to as the refractive index of that medium.
• Pressure: It is the perpendicular force acting per unit area on the surface of an object.
• Temperature: It is the property of the matter which quantitatively expresses the coldness or hotness of a substance.
• Boiling point: It is the temperature of the substance at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals environmental pressure.
• Freezing point: It is the temperature at which a liquid composition solidifies under a given pressure.
• Vapour pressure of a liquid: It is defined as the equilibrium pressure above its liquid resulting due to the evaporation of liquid

3. Specific property: An extensive property expressed per unit mass of the system 

Example- specific energy, specific entropy

4: Molar property: The ratio of extensive property to mole number is known as the molar property

A thermodynamic system depending upon interactions between system and surroundings can be classified as an open system, closed system, or isolated system.

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Heat | गर्मी

Heat

Heat- Heat is energy. Sun is the natural source of heat energy

Definition:- Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation of hotness or coldness.

Or

Heat energy of a system is defined as the sum molecules of the body.

Heat energy is also accurately called thermal energy or simply heat.  It is a form of energy transfer among particles in a substance (or system) by means of kinetic energy. In other words, heat is transferred from one location to another by particles bouncing into each other.

In physical equations, the amount of heat transferred is usually denoted by the symbol Q.

Units of Heat-

The SI unit for heat is a form of energy called the joule (J). Heat is frequently also measured in the calorie (cal.), which is defined as "the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.5 degrees Celsius to 15.5 degrees Celsius." Heat is also sometimes measured in "British thermal units" or Btu.

Sign Conventions for Heat Energy Transfer

Heat transfer may be indicated by either a positive or negative number. The heat that is released into the surroundings is written as a negative quantity (Q < 0). When heat is absorbed from the surroundings, it is written as a positive value (Q > 0).

A related term is heat flux, which is the rate of heat transfer per unit cross-section area. Heat flux may be given in units of watts per square meter or joules per square meter.

Measuring Heat

Heat may be measured as a static state or as a process. A static measure of heat is temperature. Heat transfer (a process that occurs over time) may be calculated using equations or measured using calorimeter. Calculations of heat transfer are based on variations of the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Example of Heat: A very hot cup of coffee is placed on the table. After a certain time we notice that both the cup and coffee are cold because the surrounding room temperature is the only 260C, Hence the heat flows from a hot cup (900C) to the surroundings. If you wait patiently for a long duration of time the coffee will be cooled to room temperature.

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Thermal reservoir

Thermal reservoir

A thermal energy reservoir (TER) is defined as a large body of infinite heat capacity, which is capable of absorbing or rejecting an unlimited quantity of heat without suffering appreciable changes in its thermodynamic coordinates. The changes that do take place in the large body as heat enters or leaves are so very slow and so very minute that all processes within it are quasi-static.

The thermal energy reservoir (TER) from which heat Q1 is transferred to the system operating in a heat engine cycle is called the source. The thermal energy reservoir TER to which heat Q2 is rejected from the system during a cycle is the sink.

A typical source is a constant temperature furnace where fuel is continuously burnt, and a typical sink is a river or sea or the atmosphere itself.

A mechanical energy reservoir (MER) is a large body enclosed by an adiabatic impermeable wall capable of storing work as potential energy (such as a raised weight or wound spring) or kinetic energy (such as a rotating flywheel). All processes of interest within an MER are essentially quasi- static. An MER receives and delivers mechanical energy quasi - statically.

Thermal reservoir

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Enthalpy | Specific heat

Enthalpy:-
Enthalpy is a property which is defined as the sum of inter-molecular energy and the product of pressure and volume of a system. It is denoted by symbol ' H '.
                            H=U+pV
Enthalpy H is an extensive property. The corresponding intensive property, the specific enthalpy h, is defined as
                           h=u+pv

Specific heat:-
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise a unit mass of the substance through a unit rise in temperature. The symbol ' C ' will be used for specific heat.
Therefore,   C= Q/m.∆t J/kg k

Specific heat at constant volume:-
specific heat at constant volume is defined as the change of specific inter-molecular energy with temperature at constant volume.

                                              

Specific heat at constant pressure:-

specific heat at constant pressure is defined as the change of specific

enthalpy at constant pressure.

                                              

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First law of thermodynamics and Cyclic process

Cyclic process:-
If a system performs the number of processes so that it comes back again to the initial state then the system the number of processes form a closed loop in a thermodynamic diagram which is called a thermodynamic cycle.

cyclic process

                                            

Sign convention of work and heat flow:-

sign convention for heat and work

                   

The first law of thermodynamics:-

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can be converted from one form to another with the interaction of heat, work and internal energy, but it cannot be created nor destroyed, under any circumstances. Mathematically, this is represented as

ΔU=q+w

where

ΔU  is the total change in internal energy of a system,

q  is the heat exchanged between a system and its surroundings, and

w  is the work done by or on the system.

The algebraic sum of net heat and work interaction between a system and its surrounding in a thermodynamic cycle is zero.

                                                          ∑Q = ∑W
                           cycle        cycle
                                           ∮(Q-W)=0
                             ∮𝛅Q-𝛅W=0
►Closed cyclic integral of any point function is a zero.

             X is any point function 
                    ∮dx=0
        ∴𝛅Q-𝛅W=dx
             Q-W=Δx
   This is defined as internal energy.
  ∴𝛅Q-𝛅W=dE
  ⇒𝛅Q=𝛅W+dE
  ∴Q-W=ΔE
  ⇒Q=W+ΔE
    Q1-2-W1-2=E2-E1
    Q1-2=W1-2+E2-E1
E=u+K.E+P.E+Any other kind of energy
dE=du+d(K.E)+d(P.E)+d(..........)

 Internal energy is a point function.

Limitation of the 1st law of thermodynamics

Internal Energy:-
Internal energy is a property of system whose change in a process executed by the system equals to the difference between heat and work interactions by the system with its surroundings.

. In a thermodynamic process
       𝛅Q-𝛅W=dE
   where E is the internal energy
. The Internal energy comprises inter-molecular energy kinetic energy     potential energy of a system.

✸ For a closed or stationary system, the inter-molecular energy is the only component of internal energy and is usually denoted by the symbol "U".
                     Q1-2=W1-2+E2-E1
                     𝛅Q=𝛅W+dE
              ∮𝛅Q=∮dE+∮𝛅W

             E=u+K.E+P.E  (for stationary system K.E=0)
                    dE=du+d(K.E)+d(P.E) (small change in P.E is zero)
                    dE=du

             Q1-2=u2-u1+W1-2
                   𝛅Q=du+𝛅w
If we consider a closed system which perform only reversible displacement work that means Quasi static displacement work which is nothing but pdv work.
                   𝛅Q=du+𝛅w
             (for closed system 𝛅w=pdv)  
            𝛅Q=du+pdv

✸ The first law for a closed system in an infinitesimal process can be           written as
                 𝛅Q=du+𝛅w
✸ For a finite process between two states executed by a closed                  system.
                Q1-2=u2-u1+W1-2
✸ For a finite process for per unit mass

               
✸ For infinite
                 𝛅Q/𝛅m=du+pdv

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Zeroth law of Thermodynamics and thermodynamics properties

Zeroth Law:-
When two bodies or systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third one then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

                         

                                        


Properties:-

• Identifiable characteristic features that describe or specify a system are known as property.
• Properties are the coordinates to describe the state of a system and therefore they are termed as state variables.
• The important conditions to be fulfilled to specify the state of a system:-

1.     The properties must be uniform throughout the system.

2.     The value of all properties should be invariant with time.

   There are two types of property:-

    → Extensive properties

      → Intensive properties

Extensive properties:-

    The properties which depend on the extent of the system and hence are directly proportional to the mass of the system are known as extensive properties.

Intensive properties:-

   The properties that do not depend upon the mass of the system and assume finite values even if the mass of the system approaches zero are known as intensive properties.

Thermodynamic equilibrium:-

   A system to be in Thermodynamic Equilibrium the property should remain variant with time and that should be uniform  within the system.

Thermodynamic equilibrium 

 #Thermal equilibrium            #Mechanical equilibrium    #Chemical equilibrium

Thermal equilibrium:-

The equilibrium states achieved by two (or more) system,         characterized by restricted values of the thermodynamic property of the system, after they have been in communication with each other through a diathermic wall. For thermal equilibrium temperature gradient should be zero.

thermal equilibrium

                      

Mechanical equilibrium:-
In the absence of any unbalance force within the system itself and also between the system and the surroundings, the system is said to be in a state of mechanical equilibrium. If an unbalanced force exits, either the system alone or both the system and the surroundings will undergo a change of state till mechanical equilibrium is attend. For mechanical equilibrium pressure gradient has to be zero.

Chemical equilibrium:-
If there is no chemical reaction or transfer of matter from one part of the system to another, such as diffusion or solution, the system is said to exit in a state of chemical equilibrium.

Temperature:-
A thermodynamic property that determines whether or not a system is in thermal equilibrium with other systems.

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